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Καθολική ψηφοφορία: Διαφορά μεταξύ των αναθεωρήσεων

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Έκδοση από την 06:34, 27 Ιανουαρίου 2022

Η ψηφοφορία αποτελεί σημαντικό μέρος του σύγχρονου δημοκρατικού πολιτεύματος.

Η καθολική ψηφοφορία δίνει το δικαίωμα ψήφου σε όλους τους ενήλικες πολίτες, ανεξάρτητα από το φύλο, το εισόδημα, την κοινωνική στάση, την φυλή, την εθνικότητα τις πολιτικές πεποιθήσεις κ.α.[1][2] Η αρχική χρήση του όρου έγινε από μεταρρυθμιστές στη Μεγάλη Βρετανία τον 19ο αιώνα, αν και με αυτόν εννοούσαν μόνο το καθολικό δικαίωμα ψήφου για τον ανδρικό πληθυσμό. Το δικαίωμα ψήφου επεκτάθηκε και στις γυναίκες μόνο έπειτα από ανάλογο κίνημα.[3][4]

Ο τρόπος εφαρμογής της καθολικής ψηφοφορίας διαφέρει από χώρα σε χώρα. Η ελάχιστη ηλικία ψήφου βρίσκεται συνήθως μεταξύ 18 και 25 ετών. Σε κάποιες χώρες οι «παράφρονες», οι καταδικασμένοι για ορισμένες ψηφοφορίες και όσοι τιμωρούνται για ορισμένα εκλογικά αδικήματα τους αίρεται το δικαίωμα ψήφου.[2]

Στις πρώτες αστικές δημοκρατίες, οι κυβερνήσεις περιόριζαν το δικαίωμα ψήφου μόνο σε όσους είχαν περιουσία και πλούτο, δηλαδή συνήθως σε μια μειοψηφία του ανδρικού πληθυσμού.[5] Ορισμένες φορές, υπήρχαν άλλοι περιορισμοί, όπως η απαίτηση από τους ψηφοφόρους να ασκούν μια δεδομένη θρησκεία.[6] Παρόλα αυτά, σε όλες τις σύγχρονες δημοκρατίες, ο αριθμός των ανθρώπων που μπορούσαν να ψηφίσουν αυξανόταν προοδευτικά με τον χρόνο.[7][8] Στην διάρκεια του 19ου αιώνα αναδύθηκαν πολλά κινήματα που υποστήριζαν την «καθολική ανδρική ψηφοφορία», κυρίως στην Ευρώπη, τη Μεγάλη Βρετανία και τη Βόρεια Αμερική.[9][7]

Στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες, μετά την καθιέρωση της αρχής «ένας άνθρωπος, μία ψήφος» στις αρχές της δεκαετίας του 1960 από το Ανώτατο Δικαστήριο των ΗΠΑ,[10][11] το Κογκρέσο των ΗΠΑ συνέχισε και να επεκτείνει σταδιακά το δικαιώματα ψήφου σε όλους τους Αμερικανούς, ιδιαίτερα στους Αφροαμερικανούς, μέσω του Civil Rights Act του 1964 , του Voting Rights Act του 1965 και πολλών αποφάσεων του Ανωτάτου Δικαστηρίου.[12][13] Επιπλέον, δεν μπορεί να παραλειφθεί το κίνημα για την απόκτηση δικαιώματος ψήφου στις γυναίκες. Το κίνημα αυτό ξεκίνησε στα μέσα του 19ου αιώνα. Η πρώτη χώρα που υιοθέτησε το διακίωμα ψήφου των γυναικών ήταν η Νέα Ζηλανδία (το 1893).[14] Στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες οι γυναίκες κατοχύρωσαν το δικαίωμα ψήφου 1920, με την 19η αναθεώρηση του Συντάγματος των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών.[15]

Στην Ελλάδα η καθολική ψηφοφορία για το σύνολο του αντρικού πληθυσμού καθιερώθηκε με το σύνταγμα του 1844.[16] Στο σύνταγμα του 1864 οι γυναίκες αναγνωρίστηκαν ως πολίτες όμως δεν απέκτησαν δικαίωμα ψήφου. Αυτό έγινε σταδιακά πολλά χρόνια αργότερα: το 1934 επιτράπηκε η συμμετοχή των γυναικών στις δημοτικές εκλογές, ενώ το 1952 κατοχυρώθηκε το δικαίωμα ψήφου και στις βουλευτικές εκλογές.[17]

Ιστορική αναδρομή: επέκταση του δικαιώματος

Το Ευρωπαϊκό Κοινοβούλιο είναι το μόνο διεθνές όργανο που εκλέγεται με καθολική ψηφοφορία (από το 1979).

Η Γαλλία, με το σύνταγμα των Ιακωβίνων του 1793, ήταν η πρώτη μεγάλη χώρα που υιοθέτησε την καθολική ψηφοφορία για όλους τους ενήλικες άνδρες, αν και ποτέ δεν εφαρμόστηκε τελικά: το σύνταγμα ανεστάλη πριν προλάβει να εφαρμοστεί και οι επόμενες εκλογές έγιναν το 1795 μετά την πτώση της κυβέρνηση των Ιακωβίνων το 1794. Η νέα κυβέρνηση αναίρεσε τα περισσότερα μέτρα της κυβέρνησης των Ιακωβίνων, συμπεριλαμβανομένου και αυτού του συντάγματος. Αλλού στον γαλλόφωνο κόσμο, η Δημοκρατία της Αϊτής καθιέρωσε για την καθολική ψηφοφορία των ανδρών το 1816.[18] Η Δεύτερη Γαλλική Δημοκρατία θέσπισε το δικαίωμα ψήφου σε όλους τους ενήλικες άνδρες μετά την επανάσταση του 1848.[7]

Μετά την γαλλική επανάσταση, εμφανίστηκαν κινήσεις στον δυτικό κόσμο για την θεσμοθέτηση της καθολικής ψηφοφορίας στις αρχές του 19ου αιώνα και επικεντρώθηκαν στην άρση της προϋπόθεσης να έχει κάποιος την απαιτούμενη περιουσία για να συμμετάσχει στις εκλογές. Το 1867, η Γερμανία (τότε ως Βόρεια Γερμανική Συνομοσπονδία) θέσπισε το δικαίωμα ψήφου για όλους τους ενήλικες άνδρες. Στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες, μετά τον Αμερικανικό Εμφύλιο Πόλεμο, οι σκλάβοι ελευθερώθηκαν και τους παραχωρήθηκαν διάφορα πολιτικά δικαιώματα, συμπεριλαμβανομένου και του δικαιώματος ψήφου. Ωστόσο, αρκετές πολιτείες έθεσαν αυστηρούς περιορισμούς, με συνέπεια να αναιρούν στην ουσία τα δικαιώματα που τους παραχωρήθηκαν. Στα τέλη του 19ου και στις αρχές του 20ου αιώνα, το επίκεντρο του κίνημα της καθολικής ψηφοφορίας μετατοπίστηκε στην απόκτηση δικαιώματος ψήφου στις γυναίκες, όπως συνέβη σε πολλά δυτικά κράτη και κατά τη διάρκεια της δεκαετίας του 1890 και σε κάποιες βρετανικές αποικίες (Νέα Ζηλανδία, Αυστραλία κλπ).

Στις 19 Σεπτεμβρίου 1893 ο Βρετανός Κυβερνήτης της Νέας Ζηλανδίας, Ντέιβιντ Μπόιλ, έδωσε τη συγκατάθεσή του σε έναν νέο εκλογικό νόμο, που επέτρεπε στην Νέα Ζηλανδία να παραχωρήσει στις γυναίκες δικαίωμα ψήφου στις βουλευτικές εκλογές. Έγινε έτσι η πρώτη βρετανική αποικία που επέτρεπε κάτι τέτοιο.[19] Ακολούθησε λίγο αργότερα η αποικία της Νότιας Αυστραλίας το 1894, η οποία ήταν η δεύτερη που επέτρεψε στις γυναίκες να ψηφίσουν, αλλά η πρώτη αποικία που επέτρεψε και στις γυναίκες να είναι οι ίδιες υποψήφιες στις εκλογές (δικαίωμα του εκλέγειν και του εκλέγεσθαι).[20] Δώδεκα χρόνια αργότερα, η Φιλανδία, τότε ως αυτόνομη ρωσική επικράτεια (Μεγάλο Δουκάτο της Φινλανδίας) έγινε η πρώτη περιοχή στον κόσμο που εφάρμοσε απεριόριστη καθολική ψηφοφορία, καθώς από την μία οι γυναίκες μπορούσαν να είναι υποψήφιες, σε αντίθεση με τη Νέα Ζηλανδία, και από την άλλη δεν υπήρχε αποκλεισμό άλλων ομάδων, όπως των ιθαγενών της Αυστραλίας. Η απόφαση αυτή οδήγησε στην εκλογή των πρώτων γυναικών βουλευτών στον κόσμο το επόμενο έτος.[21][22]

Η Ελλάδα θεσμοθέτησε την καθολική ψηφοφορία των ανδρών το 1844.[23] Η Ισπανία αναγνώρισε δικαίωμα αυτό στο Σύνταγμα του 1869 ενώ η Γαλλία και η Ελβετία το αναγνώρισαν μετά από τις Επαναστάσεις του 1848 (και εδώ μόνο καθολική ψηφοφορία μόνο ανδρών αρχικά). Αρκετές χώρες της Λατινικής Αμερικής, όπως και η Λιβερία στην Αφρική, αφού ανεξαρτητοποιήθηκαν, υιοθέτησαν καθολική ψηφοφρία για τον ανδρικό πληθυσμό, ωστόσο στη συνέχεια περιόρισαντο δικαίωμα ψήφου, εισάγοντας απαιτήσειςιδιοκτησίας. Η Γερμανική Αυτοκρατορία εφάρμοσε το καθολικό δικαίωμα ψήφου στους άνδρες το 1871. [24]

Στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες της εποχή της ανασυγκρότησης, η 15η τροποποίηση του Συντάγματος των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών (1870), διασφάλιζε καθολική ψηφοφορία για όλους του άνδρες, ανεξαρτήτου φυλής, χρώματος ή προηγούμενης κατάστασης δουλείας. Αυτή η τροπολογία είχε στόχο να εγγυηθεί το δικαίωμα ψήφου στους Αφροαμερικανούς, πολλοί από τους οποίους ήταν δούλοι στο Αμερικανικό Νότο πριν από το τέλος (1865) του Αμερικανικού Εμφυλίου Πολέμου και την κατάργηση της δουλείας το 1864-1865. Παρά την τροποποίηση, μετά το 1877, διάφορες Νότιες Πολιτείες εισήγαγαν ευφάνταστους νόμους, με τους οποίους απέκλειαν πρακτικά τους μαύρους από το δικαίωμα ψήφου,[25] ενώ παράλληλα χρησιμοποίησαν βία και τρομοκρατία για να εκφοβίσουν ορισμένοι μαύρους από το να επιδιώξουν να ψηφίσουν.[26] Οι μαύροι του Νότου έπρεπε να περιμένουν να τους εξασφαλιστεί το δικαίωμα ψήφου έως το Κίνημα πολιτικών δικαιωμάτων την δεκαετία του 1960.[25]

Το 1893 η αυτοδιοικούμενη αποικία της Νέας Ζηλανδίας έγινε η πρώτη χώρα στον κόσμο (εκτός από τη βραχύβια Δημοκρατία της Κορσικής του 18ου αιώνα) που παραχώρησε το δικαίωμα ψήφου στις γυναίκες. Ωστόσο, ενώ μπορούσαν να ψηφίζουν, οι γυναίκες δεν μπορούσαν να είναι υποψήφιες για τις εκλογές, μέχρι το 1919.[27]

Το 1902 η Κοινοπολιτεία της Αυστραλίας έγινε η πρώτη χώρα που χορήγησε πλήρη στις γυναίκες τόσο το δικαίωμα του εκλέγειν όσο και το δικαίωμα του εκλέγεσθαι.[28]

Ωστόσο η Αυστραλία ακόμα δεν εφάρμοζε καθολική ψηφοφορία καθώς δεν επέτρεπε στους Αβορίγινες Αυστραλούς να ψηφίσουν μέχρι το 1962.

Αρκετά ευρωπαϊκά έθνη που είχαν θεσπίσει καθολική ψηφοφορία, την ανέστειλαν κατά τη διάρκεια και μετά τον Πρώτου Παγκοσμίου Πολέμου το 1914 με 1918.

Πολλές κοινωνίες στο παρελθόν είχαν αρνηθεί την πολιτική εκπροσώπηση κάποιων φυλών ή εθνικοτήτων. Για παράδειγμα, στη Νότια Αφρική με την εφαρμογή του απαρτχάιντ, οι μη-λευκοί δεν μπορούσαν γενικά να ψηφίσουν στις εθνικές εκλογές μέχρι τις πρώτες πολυκομματικές εκλογές το 1994. Η Ροδεσία υιοθέτησε μία παρόμοια πολιτική στη διακήρυξη της ανεξαρτησίας της το 1965, το οποίο ωστόσο επέτρεπε έναν μικρό αριθμό αντιπροσώπων για την σημαντικά μεγαλύτερη πλειοψηφία των Μαύρων (σύμφωνα με το σύνταγμα του 1961, υπήρχαν τάξεις ψηφοφόρων που βασίζονταν σε κοινωνικοοικονομικά κριτήρια, Αυτά απέκλειαν τους περισσότερους μαύρους και λίγους λευκούς ψηφοφόρους σε ένα ξεχωριστό σύνολο εκλογικών περιφερειών· αυτό αντικαταστάθηκε το 1969 από ένα ανοιχτά φυλετικό διαχωρισμό, με κατάταξη όλων των μαύρων στον κατάλογο ψηφοφόρων «Β»).

Universal suffrage by country or territory
Universal Male Female Ethnicity Country or territory Notes
2004 2004 2004 2004 Afghanistan In 1919 King Amanullah Khan "created Afghanistan’s first constitution, which abolished slavery, created a legislature, guaranteed secular education, and instituted equal rights for men and women."[29] By 1929 he was overthrown along with his constitution and all voting rights were removed. The 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan transformed Afghanistan into a modern democracy.[30] In 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan and toppled the government, leaving in 1989. The Taliban took control of the government in 1996. But it wasn't until after the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan that people regained the right to vote in 2004[31]
1952 1853 1952 1853 Argentina Universal male suffrage was instituted in 1853. Universal, secret and mandatory suffrage for male citizens over 18 years of age was granted by the Sáenz Peña Law (General Election Law) of 1912. It was amended to include female citizens in 1947 but became effective in 1952.
1919 1919 1919 1919 Armenia Since the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. June 21 and 23, 1919, first direct parliamentary elections were held in Armenia under universal suffrage - every person over the age of 20 had the right to vote regardless of gender, ethnicity or religious beliefs and 3 women were elected as MPs. [32][33]
1967 1901 1902 1967 Australia In 1855, the parliament of the self-governing Colony of South Australia enacted legislation providing for universal male suffrage. The parliaments of the Colony of Victoria and the Colony of New South Wales followed suit by enacting legislation providing universal male suffrage in 1857 and 1858, respectively.

In 1894 the parliament of the Colony of South Australia enacted legislation providing female adults franchise; giving all adults of the age of majority the right to vote in elections, and for any elector to stand for high office. In 1901, the self-governing colonies of Australia joined together in a federal structure of states. In 1902, the new federal parliament legislated for a white adult franchise and the right of electors to stand for and occupy any office for which they could directly vote. Indigenous people were explicitly excluded. True universal suffrage was not achieved until 1967 when the Commonwealth Electoral Act extended the right to vote to all Australians regardless of race. However, Australia was first united as a federation in 1901Πρότυπο:Circular reference.Hence, white female voting rights were not enabled until the nation was united. Voting rights for all white men and women were established in 1902.[34]

1918 1896 1918 1907 Austria Universal suffrage 1896, universal and equal suffrage (removing multiple voting) 1907. Before 1907 unmarried landholding women were allowed to vote. After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I universal suffrage including women.
1919 1919 1919 1919 Azerbaijan Joined the nascent Soviet Union in 1920.
1961 1958 1961 1807 Bahamas Legislation passed in the house in 1961 allowing for Universal adult suffrage in The Bahamas. All men could vote equally in The Bahamas in 1958. In 1807 legislation passed in the house of assembly giving free persons of color the right to vote.[εκκρεμεί παραπομπή]
1975 1975 1975[35] – Bahrain Universal suffrage in 1973, although parliament was suspended and dissolved in 1975 for approximately 30 years. Non-Sunni Muslims cannot vote.
1948 1893 1948 1893 Belgium Universal census suffrage for all men aged 25 and above since 1893. Depending on education and amount of taxes paid, males could cast between 1 and 3 votes. Widows were also allowed to vote but lost their voting rights after remarrying. Universal single suffrage for males since 1918. Universal suffrage for women was finally introduced in 1948.
2008 2008 2008 2008 Bhutan
1952 1938 1952 1952 Bolivia Universal suffrage granted by decree of 1952; first elections in 1956; women's suffrage coincided with abolition of literacy requirements.
1985 1891 1932 1891 Brazil Male suffrage from Brazilian Constitution of 1891 excluding beggars, women, illiterates, lowest ranking soldiers and members of monastic orders.Πρότυπο:Circular referenceΠρότυπο:Circular reference Women from 1932. Suffrage was further expanded to all but illiterate people in 1946. Illiterates remained without the right to vote until 1985.
– – – – Brunei No elections.
1945 1945 1945 1945 Bulgaria Universal suffrage including women and men serving in the Army was instituted by the government of the Fatherland front.
1990 1990 1990 1990 Burma/Myanmar Last free elections held in 1990.[36] New elections held in 2015, which elected 75% of legislators, while 25% remain appointed by the military.
1960 1920 1920 1960 Canada In 1920, Canada enacted suffrage for federal elections for male and female citizens, with exceptions for Chinese Canadians and Aboriginal Canadians;[37] for provincial elections, female suffrage was established between 1916 (Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan) and 1940 (Quebec). Chinese Canadians, regardless of gender, were given suffrage in 1947, while Aboriginal Canadians were not allowed to vote until 1960, regardless of gender. Newfoundland which joined Canada in 1949 had universal male suffrage in 1925.
1970 1970 1970 1970 Chile From 1888 suffrage for men of any race over 21 who can read. From 1925 full suffrage for men aged 21 and above and able to read and write. 1934 women get to vote on Municipal Elections. From 1949 universal suffrage for men and women aged 21 and above and able to read and write. From 1970 suffrage for men and women aged 18 and older whether or not they can read.
1953 1947 1953 1947 China Officially Universal suffrage was granted under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China when the First National Assembly (disbanded 2005) elections were held in 1947. But women were not explicitly enfranchised until 1953 thanks to the first Electoral Law of the People's Republic of China.[38] The general populace can only vote for local elections. National elections for president and premier are held by the National People's Congress. Taiwan had the first multi-party legislative elections in 1992 and the first presidential election in 1996.
1954 1936 1954 1936 Colombia Universal male suffrage starting in 1853, restricted in 1886. Electorate defined on the basis of adult franchise and joint electorate.
1918 1896 1918 1896 First Czechoslovak Republic Within Austria, universal suffrage 1896, universal and equal suffrage (removing multiple voting) 1907. After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I, universal suffrage including women.
1915 1849 1915 1849 Denmark The King granted limited voting rights in 1834 but only to property owners and with limited power. First proper voting rights came in 1849 to "men over 30 of good reputation" but in the subsequent years the rules were changed a number of times, and it was not until the change of the constitution in 1915 that all men and women living within the kingdom had influence on all chambers.[39] Danish law does not operate with any notion of "ethnicity", but non-resident citizens are still excluded from voting after two years abroad.[40]
2015 Πρότυπο:Date? Πρότυπο:Date? Πρότυπο:Date? Dominican Republic Jorge Radhamés Zorrilla Ozuna proposed the inclusion of the military vote in the constitutional reform of Dominican Republic, to be effective in the elections of 2016.[41]
1918 1917 1918 1917 Estonia Two tiered elections were held, with 62 representatives from rural communities and towns elected in May–June and July–August, respectively.
1979 1979 1979 1979 European Union Elections to the European Parliament have taken place since 1979.
1906 1906 1906 1906 Finland As an autonomous Grand Principality in the Russian Empire, Finland achieved universal suffrage in 1906, becoming the second country in the world to adopt universal suffrage.[42] The Finnish parliamentary election of 1907 was the first time when women were elected (19 of 200 MPs). After becoming independent in 1917, Finland continued its universal suffrage.
1945[43] 1848 1944 1792[44] France In 1792, the Convention assembly was elected by all French males 21 and over. Over the subsequent years, France experienced profound political upheaval, with republican, monarchist and bonapartist government governing at various times. Through these changes, suffrage increased and decreased based on the introduction, repeal and reintroduction of various degrees of universal, property and census-based suffrage. Universal male suffrage was given in 1848, with the exception of the military who obtained the right to vote in 1945. This was supplemented in 1944 by full universal suffrage, including women as voters.[εκκρεμεί παραπομπή]
1919 1919 1919 1919 Georgia The first democratic elections were held on 14–16 February 1919. Five women were elected in total (for Menshevik party) to take part in national legislature numbering 130MPs. In 1921, Georgia became a part of the nascent Soviet Union.[nb 1]
1919 1871 1919 1919 Germany The German Empire from 1871 until 1918 (and the North German Confederation before it from 1867) had universal male suffrage, one of the more progressive election franchises at the time. After the German Revolution of 1918–19, the Weimar Constitution established universal suffrage in 1919 with a minimum voting age of 20.
1951 1951 1951 1951 Ghana Universal suffrage was granted for the 1951 legislative election. This was the first election to be held in Africa under universal suffrage.
1952 1844 1952 1844 Greece After the Revolution of 3 September 1843, the Greek Constitution of 1844 with the electoral law of 18 March 1844 introduced universal male suffrage with secret ballot.[45] Women were given the right to vote in local elections in 1930 and in parliamentary elections since 1952.
1991 1991 1991 1991 Hong Kong Held its first legislative elections in 1991, elected part of the legislators. Until now Hong Kong can still only elect half of the legislators. All registered voters are eligible to vote.
1918 1918 1918 1867 Hungary After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I.

Somewhat reverted in 1925: women's voting age raised to 30, education and wealth requirements were raised. In rural constituencies open voting was reinstated. The rate of eligible citizens fell to 29%.[46]

1950 1950 1950 1950 India All adult citizens as recognized by the Constitution of India, irrespective of race or gender or religion on the founding of the Republic of India.
1955 1955 1955 1955 Indonesia
1963 1906 1963 1906 Iran Under "Constitutional Revolution". The White Revolution gave women the right to vote in 1963.[47]
1923 1918 1923 1791 Ireland The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791Σφάλμα αναφοράς: Μη έγκυρη ετικέτα <ref>•

οι παραπομπές χωρίς όνομα πρέπει να έχουν περιεχόμενο removed the voting ban from Catholic men in the Kingdom of Ireland. All adult men in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland were enfranchised by the Representation of the People Act 1918.[48] This Act granted women over 30 the right to vote in national elections,Σφάλμα αναφοράς: Μη έγκυρη ετικέτα <ref>• οι παραπομπές χωρίς όνομα πρέπει να έχουν περιεχόμενο but about 60% of women (those under 30 or not meeting property qualifications) were excluded until the Electoral Act 1923 in the Irish Free State changed previous British law to enfranchise women equally with men in 1923.

1948 1948 1948 1948 Israel Universal suffrage since the founding of the State of Israel.
1945 1912 1945 1912 Italy 1912, introduction of the first universal male suffrage, extended to all citizens aged 30 and older, with no restrictions. It was applied in the elections of 1913. In 1918 the electorate was expanded with all male citizens aged 21 and older or who had served in the army. Universal adult suffrage, including women, introduced in 1945, and applied for the first time in the referendum of 1946. Suffrage for men and women aged 18 granted in 1975.
1944 1944 1944 1944 Jamaica Universal adult suffrage introduced.
1947 1925 1947 1925 Japan Universal adult male suffrage for those over 25 was introduced in 1925. Universal adult suffrage for both sexes over 20 introduced in 1946, ratified by the new Constitution which adopted on 3 May 1947. The Voting age was reduced to 18 in 2016.
2005 1962 2005 1962 Kuwait Universal adult male suffrage since 1962, for citizens who are 21 or older, with the exception of those who, at the time of elections, serve in the armed forces. As of 2005, women who satisfy the age and citizenship requirements are allowed to vote.
1919 1919 1919 1919 Latvia Universal suffrage introduced in Law of elections to the Constituent assembly.
1943 1943 1943 1943 Lebanon Universal suffrage for all adult males and females since the independence of Lebanon (The Chamber of Deputies is shared equally between Christians and Muslims, rather than elected by universal suffrage that would have provided a Muslim majority).
1951 1946 1946 – Liberia Liberia denies political rights for non-Black people. See: Liberian nationality law
1984 1984 1984 1984 Liechtenstein
1922 1922 1922 1922 Lithuania
1919 1919 1919[49] 1919 Luxembourg Universal voting rights introduced in May 1919, first applied in a referendum on 28 September, then the parliamentarian elections on 26 October 1919.
1957 1956 1957 1956 Malaysia
1947 1947 1947 1947 Malta The 1947 election was the first election without property qualifications for voters, and women were also allowed to vote for the first time.
1959 1948 1959 1948 Mauritius The 1959 election was the first election when women were also allowed to vote for the first time. The 1948 Mauritian general election was the first instance when any adult who could write their names in any of the island's languages was allowed to vote, without property qualifications for voters.[50]
1953 1917 1953 1917 Mexico Universal suffrage given to men in 1917 after the Mexican Revolution; suffrage given to women in municipal elections in 1947 and national elections in 1953.[51] In 1996, Mexicans living in the United States were given the right to vote in Mexican elections.[52]
1919 1917 1919 1917 Netherlands From 1917 full suffrage for men aged 23 and above. From 1919 universal suffrage for men and women aged 23. From 1971 suffrage for men and women aged 18 and older.
1893 1879 1893 1879 New Zealand With the extension of voting rights to women in 1893, the self-governing British colony became one of the first permanently constituted jurisdictions in the world to grant universal adult suffrage,[27] suffrage previously having been universal for Māori men over 21 from 1867, and for white men from 1879.[53] Plural voting (impacting men) was abolished in 1889. Some prison inmates are denied the right to vote.
1913 1898 1913 1851 Norway Full male suffrage in 1898, with women included in 1913. Tax-paying Sami men were granted suffrage in a revision of the constitution in 1821.[54] The so-called Jew clause in the Constitution of 1814 explicitly banned Jews from entering and residing in the kingdom. It was repealed in 1851, paving the way for Jews to live, pay taxes and vote in Norway.
1956 1951 1956 1951 Pakistan In 1956, women were granted the right to vote in national elections. Pakistan adopted universal adult suffrage for provisional assembly elections soon after it became independent in 1947. The first direct elections held in the country after independence were for the provincial Assembly of the Punjab from 10 to 20 March 1951.
1979 1979 1979 1979 Peru Suffrage was granted for women in 1955 but suffrage for the illiterate was only granted with the 1979 Constitution.
1946 1935 1937 1946 Philippines Males who were over 25 years old and could speak English or Spanish, with property and tax restrictions, were previously allowed to vote as early as 1907; universal male suffrage became a constitutional right in 1935. Women's suffrage was approved in a plebiscite in 1937.[55]
1918 1918 1918 1918 Poland Prior to the Partition of Poland in 1795, only nobility (men) were allowed to take part in political life. The first parliamentary elections were held on 26 January 1919 (1919 Polish legislative election), according to the decree introducing universal suffrage, signed by Józef Piłsudski on 28 November 1918, immediately after restoring independent Polish state. Universal suffrage for men and women over 21.
1974 1974 1974 1974 Portugal By 1878, 72% of the male adult population had access to vote; this number was restricted by the policies of the last years of the monarchy and first years of the republic (transition in 1910 with the 5 October 1910 revolution), being reinstalled only in the 1920s. Restricted female suffrage was firstly allowed in 1931; it was further extended in 1933, 1946, and finally 1968. Due to the 1933–74 dictatorship of Estado Novo, universal suffrage was only fully attained after the 1974 Carnation revolution.
Πρότυπο:Date? 2013 Πρότυπο:Date? Πρότυπο:Date? Qatar Municipal elections are open for active and passive participation for men and women since 1999.
1948 1918 1948 1918 Romania The universal suffrage for men established by Royal Decree in November 1918, the first elections using universal suffrage took place in November 1919. Literate women were given the right to vote in the local elections in 1929 and the electoral law of 1939 extended the active voting rights to all literate citizens which were 30 years old or older. The universal suffrage was granted by the 1948 Constitution of Romania.[56][57]
1917 1917 1917 1917 Russia Universal suffrage established by Declaration of the Provisional Government of 15 March 1917 and Statute on Elections of the Constituent Assembly of 2 August 1917.
1991 1990 1991 1990 Samoa
2015 2005 2015 2005 Saudi Arabia Municipal elections only
1945 1888 1945 1888 Serbia Suffrage for male voters who paid taxes was granted in the Constitution of 1869, and in the Constitution of 1888 the right to vote was given to all males of age 21. Women were allowed to vote with the Communist constitution of Yugoslavia.
1994 1910 1931 1994 South Africa White women's suffrage granted in 1930 and suffrage for all white adults regardless of property in 1931. Universal suffrage not regarding race or colour of skin; Blacks and Coloureds were denied the right to vote before and during the apartheid era (1948–1994).
1948 1948 1948 1948 South Korea Universal suffrage since the founding of the Republic of Korea. However, voting was initially limited to landowners and taxpayers in the larger towns, elders voting for everyone at the village level.[58]
1977 1812 1977 1869 Spain The Constitution of 1812 enfranchised all Spanish men of Iberian or indigenous American descent in both hemispheres irrespective of property, but explicitly excluded Afrodescendent men.[εκκρεμεί παραπομπή]

Extended to all men from 1869 to 1878 (First Spanish Republic and three first years of Bourbon Restoration) and from 1890 to the end of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–36).[59] On 19 November 1933 women were granted the right to vote. Revoked during Franco era (1939–75) and recovered since 1977 in the new Spanish Constitution.

1931 1931 1931 1931 Sri Lanka Universal suffrage for all irrespective of race, ethnicity, language, or gender. Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.
1945 1909 1919 1873 Sweden During the years 1718–72 burgher men and women of age and with income were able to elect members of parliament, but women's suffrage was abolished in 1772. Jews were given the right to vote in 1838, but not given the right to stand for election until 1870. Catholics were given the right to vote in 1873, but not given the right to be eligible as cabinet minister until 1951. FullΠρότυπο:Discuss male suffrage 1909 for those aged 25 and above, but only to one of two equally weighed houses of parliament. Universal suffrage for men and women aged 23 enacted in 1919,[60] and the first election took place in 1921. Until 1924 men who refused to do military service were excepted from universal suffrage. Until 1937 courts were able to punish crimes by revoking a convict's right to vote. Until 1945 persons living on benefits were excepted from universal suffrage. Voting age changed to 21 in 1945, to 20 in 1965, to 19 in 1969 and to 18 in 1975.
1991 1848 1991 1866 Switzerland At the formation of the federal state in 1848, Switzerland introduced universal male suffrage. Jews did not have the same political rights as Christian citizens until 1866. Women's suffrage was introduced, by (male) referendum, on the federal level in 1971. On the level of the constituent states of the Old Swiss Confederacy, universal male suffrage is first attested in Uri in 1231, in Schwyz in 1294 and in Unterwalden in 1309 (Landsgemeinde). The first canton to introduce women's suffrage was Vaud in 1959, the last canton, Appenzell Innerrhoden, had a centuries-old law forbidding women to vote. This was only changed in 1991 when Switzerland's federal court ordered the canton to grant women the right to vote.[61]
1933 1933 1933 1933 Thailand Thailand gave all villagers, men and women, the right to vote in local village elections in the "Local Administrative Act of May 1897" but not nationally.[62] Universal suffrage for national elections was granted during the first general election in 1933.
1959 Πρότυπο:Date? 1957 Πρότυπο:Date? Tunisia Universal suffrage for all since the first post-independence constitution.
1934 1876 1934 1876 Turkey
– 2006 2006 2006 United Arab Emirates Limited suffrage for both men and women.
1928 1918 1928 1791 United Kingdom The removal of voting rights based on religion occurred with the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791[63] in the Kingdom of Great Britain & the Kingdom of Ireland (being what most of what we now call the United Kingdom was called back then). The right to vote has never since been based on race or religion.[65] All adult men in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland were enfranchised by the Representation of the People Act 1918.[48] This Act granted women over 30 the right to vote in national elections,[71] but about 60% of women (those under 30 or not meeting property qualifications) were excluded until the Equal Franchise Act 1928, when women were granted the vote on the same terms as men in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The Representation of the People Act 1948 removed plural voting rights held by about 7% of the electorate.[72][74] The Representation of the People Act 1969 reduced the voting age from 21 to 18. As of 2019, 529,902 British nationals (257,646 people in Crown Dependencies and 272,256 people in British Overseas Territories) are represented in local legislatures in their terratories but not in the House of Commons, unless they are resident in the United Kingdom.[75][81]
1948 1948 1948 1948 United Nations Provision of "universal and equal suffrage" in Universal Declaration of Human Rights [Article 21(3)]
1965[82] 1856[85] 1920[86] 1965Σφάλμα αναφοράς: Μη έγκυρη ετικέτα <ref>•

οι παραπομπές χωρίς όνομα πρέπει να έχουν περιεχόμενο

United States
  • In the colonial era, there had been various restrictions on suffrage in what is today the United States. Property restrictions on voting disenfranchised more than half of the white male population in most states.[87]
  • After the American Revolution, the Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote (about 6% of the population).[88][89] Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky were the three states to have full adult suffrage for white males before 1800. New Jersey allowed women's suffrage for landowners until the early 1800s.
  • In the 1820 election, there were 108,359 ballots cast. In the 1840 election, 2,412,694 ballots were cast, an increase that far outstripped natural population growth. Poor voters became a huge part of the electorate. By 1856, after the period of Jacksonian democracy, all states had almost universal white adult male suffrage regardless of property ownership. Tax-paying requirements remained in five states, and two into the 20th century.[90][91]
  • In 1868, the 14th Amendment altered the way each state is represented in the House of Representatives. It counted all residents for apportionment including former slaves, overriding the three-fifths compromise, and reduced a state's apportionment if it wrongfully denied men aged 21 and above the right to vote. However, this was not enforced in practice. In 1870, the 15th Amendment granted suffrage to all males of any race, skin color, and ethnicity, including former slaves (freedmen), meaning that male African Americans in theory had the right to vote throughout the United States.
  • Starting in 1888, former Confederate states passed Jim Crow laws and amendments to effectively disfranchise black and poor white voters through poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses and other restrictions, applied in a discriminatory manner. During this period, the Supreme Court generally upheld state efforts to discriminate against racial minorities; only later in the 20th century were these laws ruled unconstitutional. Black males in the Northern states could vote, but the majority of African Americans lived in the South.[92][93]
  • Wyoming was the first territory to enfranchise all women in 1869. From then until 1916, all Western states legalized women suffrage, but few Eastern states followed suit. However, in 1920 the 19th Amendment extended the franchise to women in all states.
  • In 1924 the Indian Citizenship Act gave suffrage to all Native Americans, nearly two-thirds of whom already had citizenship and the right to vote.[94]
  • In 1943 Chinese immigrants were given the right to citizenship and the right to vote by the Magnuson Act. It allowed Chinese immigration for the first time since the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, and permitted some Chinese immigrants already residing in the country to become naturalized citizens.
  • In 1962–1964, the nationwide "one man, one vote" electoral system was lawfully established mainly through the Warren Court's rulings in Baker v. Carr (1962), Reynolds v. Sims (1964), as well as Wesberry v. Sanders (1964).[95][96][97]
  • In 1964–1965, the 24th Amendment, which abolished the use of poll taxes as a requirement for voting in federal elections, was passed. Full enfranchisement was revived in 1965, with the passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965, which provided for federal enforcement of rights.[12] For state elections, it was not until the Warren Court ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.[13] This removed a burden on the poor.
  • In 1971, the 26th Amendment ratified, which granted suffrage for men and women aged 18.
  • Currently 4 million American citizens living in the Territories of the United States do not have representation in the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate.
1918 Πρότυπο:Date? Πρότυπο:Date? Πρότυπο:Date? Uruguay With the 1918 Uruguayan Constitution.
1979 Πρότυπο:Date? 1919 1979 Zimbabwe Universal suffrage was introduced in the 1978 Internal Settlement between Ian Smith and Abel Muzorewa. The 1979 Lancaster House constitution agreed to accommodate the nationalists and also affirmed universal suffrage but with a special role for whites. Universal suffrage with no special consideration for race came in 1987. Before 1978, Rhodesia (the name for the region that would become Zimbabwe in 1980) had a merit qualification to vote. This was controversial because it excluded the vast majority of native Africans. Though white women were granted the right to vote in 1919.

Παραπομπές

 

  1. ↑ «Universal suffrage definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary». www.collinsdictionary.com (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 1 Φεβρουαρίου 2019. 
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Suffrage, Encyclopedia Britannica.
  3. ↑ Shirley Roberts, Sophia Jex-Blake: A Woman Pioneer in Nineteenth Century Medical Reform (Routledge, 1993), p. 1: "Although political reformers from John Wilkes onward had pressed for 'universal adult franchise' they and their followers all understood the term to mean 'universal 'male suffrage.'"
  4. ↑ Robert Justin Goldstein, Political Repression in 19th Century Europe (Routledge, 1983): "the great majority of European countries adopted highly discriminatory suffrage systems for lower legislative chambers for most or all of the 1815-1915 period. Universal male suffrage (which is what was meant when universal suffrage was discussed) at age 21 would have enfranchised about 25 per cent of the European population during the nineteenth century."
  5. ↑ «Athenian Democracy». World History Encyclopedia. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Μαΐου 2020. 
  6. ↑ «America's True History of Religious Tolerance». Smithsonian Magazine (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Μαΐου 2020. 
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 Caramani, Daniele (13 Φεβρουαρίου 2017). Elections in Western Europe 1815–1996 (στα Αγγλικά). Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-65508-3. 
  8. ↑ «Constitutional Rights Foundation». www.crf-usa.org. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Μαΐου 2020. 
  9. ↑ «White Manhood Suffrage». National Museum of American History (στα Αγγλικά). 3 Μαΐου 2017. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Μαΐου 2020. 
  10. ↑ Goldman, Ari L. (21 November 1986). «One Man, One Vote: Decades of Court Decisions» (στα αγγλικά). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/one-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html. Ανακτήθηκε στις 14 January 2020. 
  11. ↑ Pederson, William D. «Earl Warren». www.mtsu.edu (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 14 Ιανουαρίου 2020. 
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 «We Shall Overcome – The Players». www.nps.gov. Ανακτήθηκε στις 5 Οκτωβρίου 2019. 
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 «Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections». Oyez (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 5 Οκτωβρίου 2019. 
  14. ↑ «Δικαίωμα ψήφου στις γυναίκες». Women in HistoryWiki. Ανακτήθηκε στις 12 Δεκεμβρίου 2021. 
  15. ↑ «19th Amendment». LII / Legal Information Institute (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 24 Μαΐου 2019. 
  16. ↑ Γιούλη. «Ιστορία Κατεύθυνσης: 1. Το σύνταγμα του 1844». Ιστορία Κατεύθυνσης. Ανακτήθηκε στις 12 Δεκεμβρίου 2021. 
  17. ↑ Σήμερα .gr, Σαν. «Οι Ελληνίδες στις κάλπες». Σαν Σήμερα .gr. Ανακτήθηκε στις 12 Δεκεμβρίου 2021. 
  18. ↑ Dubois, Laurent (2012). Haiti: The Aftershocks of History. New York: Henry Holt and Company. σελίδες 60–61. ISBN 9780805095623. Ανακτήθηκε στις 19 Σεπτεμβρίου 2019. In 1816, the Republic of Haiti put into place a new constitution [...]. The creation of the Chamber of Deputies was a significant advance for democratic government: the deputies were elected by universal male suffrage, with no restrictions on the right to vote [...]. 
  19. ↑ «new zealand women and the vote». nzhistory.govt.nz. Ανακτήθηκε στις 30 Ιουνίου 2019. 
  20. ↑ «Women's suffrage». Ανακτήθηκε στις 1 Δεκεμβρίου 2019. 
  21. ↑ «Eduskunnan lyhyt historia». www.eduskunta.fi. 
  22. ↑ «Centenary of women's full political rights in Finland». 20 Ιουλίου 2011. Αρχειοθετήθηκε από το πρωτότυπο στις 20 Ιουλίου 2011. 
  23. ↑ «Greece – Building the nation, 1832–1913». Encyclopedia Britannica. 
  24. ↑ «Karen Offen, "Women, Citizenship, and Suffrage in France Since 1789"». www.iub.edu. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Δεκεμβρίου 2019. 
  25. ↑ 25,0 25,1 Chandler Davidson, "The Recent Evolution of Voting Rights Law Affecting Racial and Language Minorities" in Quiet Revolution in the South: The Impact of the Voting Rights Act, 1965–1990 (Princeton University Press, 1994: eds. Chandler Davidson & Bernard Grofman), pp. 21–22.
  26. ↑ Gary Gershman, "Fifteenth Amendment (1870)" in Race and Racism in the United States: An Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic (eds. Charles A. Gallagher, Cameron D. Lippard), pp. 441–43.
  27. ↑ 27,0 27,1 Nohlen, Dieter (2001). Elections in Asia and the Pacific: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific. Oxford University Press. σελ. 14. 
  28. ↑ http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-suffragettes [νεκρός σύνδεσμος]
  29. ↑ «The Fight for Women's Voting Rights». 8 Νοεμβρίου 2017. 
  30. ↑ «Profile: Ex-king Zahir Shah». BBC News. 1 October 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1573181.stm. 
  31. ↑ «The Fight for Women's Voting Rights». 8 Νοεμβρίου 2017. 
  32. ↑ Badalyan, Lena (5 Δεκεμβρίου 2018). «Women's Suffrage: The Armenian Formula». Chai Khana. Ανακτήθηκε στις 30 Νοεμβρίου 2018. 
  33. ↑ Harutyunyan, Anahit (8 Μαρτίου 2018). Առաջին խորհրդարանի (1919-1920) երեք կին պատգամավորները. aniarc.am (στα Αρμενικά). Yerevan, Armenia: Armenian Research Center for Anteriology. Αρχειοθετήθηκε από το πρωτότυπο στις 4 Μαΐου 2018. Ανακτήθηκε στις 11 Ιανουαρίου 2019. Three female deputies of the first parliament (1919-1920) 
  34. ↑ corporateName=Australian Electoral Commission; address=Queen Victoria Terrace, Parkes ACT 2600; contact=13 23 26. «The Right to Vote in Australia». Australian Electoral Commission (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 23 Αυγούστου 2019. 
  35. ↑ «Woman Suffrage Timeline International – Winning the Vote Around the World». Womenshistory.about.com. 25 Απριλίου 1908. Ανακτήθηκε στις 6 Μαΐου 2013. 
  36. ↑ «Burma timeline». BBC News. 30 March 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1300082.stm. 
  37. ↑ «Equality and Justice – for Some». Canadian Human Rights Commission. Ανακτήθηκε στις 19 Ιουλίου 2015. 
  38. ↑ «When women got the right to vote in 25 places around the world». 
  39. ↑ «Valgret 1834–1915». danmarkshistorien.dk. 
  40. ↑ «Udlandsdanskeres valgret». valg.oim.dk. 
  41. ↑ «Zorrilla Ozuna propone incluir voto militar en modificación constitucional». El Día (στα Ισπανικά). 1 Ιουνίου 2015. Ανακτήθηκε στις 23 Αυγούστου 2019. 
  42. ↑ Official Report of Debates. 1991. σελ. 113. 
  43. ↑ Over the years suffrage increased and decreased based on the introduction, repeal and reintroduction of various degrees of universal, property and census-based suffrage. Universal male suffrage was given in 1848 and in 1944 women had equal universal suffrage rights to men. By 1945 the military obtained the right to vote in 1945.
  44. ↑ In 1792, the Convention assembly was elected by all French males 21 and over regardless of one's ethnicity. While not an ethnicity, those serving in the military obtained the right to vote in 1945.
  45. ↑ «Greece – Building the nation, 1832–1913». Encyclopedia Britannica (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 23 Αυγούστου 2019. 
  46. ↑ «Hungarian Voting Act of 1925» (στα Ουγγρικά). Αρχειοθετήθηκε από το πρωτότυπο στις 23 Ιουνίου 2015. 
  47. ↑ «Iran». The National Democratic Institute. Ανακτήθηκε στις 17 Ιανουαρίου 2016. 
  48. ↑ 48,0 48,1 «The History of the Parliamentary Franchise». House of Commons Library. 1 Μαρτίου 2013. Ανακτήθηκε στις 16 Μαρτίου 2016. 
  49. ↑ «Right to vote – Luxembourg». Ανακτήθηκε στις 7 Φεβρουαρίου 2019. 
  50. ↑ «Mauritius: History». The Commonwealth. Ανακτήθηκε στις 28 Ιουλίου 2020. 
  51. ↑ «Mexican women were granted the right to run for office and to vote in national elections in 1953». Thinkfinity. Αρχειοθετήθηκε από το πρωτότυπο στις 9 Αυγούστου 2010. Ανακτήθηκε στις 1 Απριλίου 2012. 
  52. ↑ «Mexico: Voting Rights and Emigration – Migration News | Migration Dialogue». migration.ucdavis.edu. 
  53. ↑ «Archived copy». Αρχειοθετήθηκε από το πρωτότυπο στις 29 Απριλίου 2007. Ανακτήθηκε στις 9 Ιουνίου 2007. 
  54. ↑ «Da samer fikk stemmerett». Stortinget (στα Νορβηγικά). 15 Μαΐου 2018. Ανακτήθηκε στις 23 Αυγούστου 2019. 
  55. ↑ Tan, Michael (12 November 2009). «Suffrage». Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20091112-235872/Suffrage. Ανακτήθηκε στις 17 January 2013. 
  56. ↑ Octavian Dobrișan (11 Δεκεμβρίου 2016). «Istoria votului în România [Voting history in Romania]» (στα Ρουμανικά). Radio Oltenia. Ανακτήθηκε στις 29 Ιανουαρίου 2019. 
  57. ↑ Ionuț Dulămiță, Ionuț Sociu (26 Μαρτίου 2018). «80 de ani de când femeile pot vota în România [80 years since women can vote in Romania]» (στα Ρουμανικά). Scena 9. Ανακτήθηκε στις 29 Ιανουαρίου 2019. 
  58. ↑ Cumings, Bruce (2010). The Korean War: A History. σελ. 111. 
  59. ↑ «El sufragio universal en Espana (1890–1936)» (PDF). Ανακτήθηκε στις 5 Δεκεμβρίου 2019. 
  60. ↑ «Sveriges Riksdag: Kampen för rösträtt». 
  61. ↑ «1990 - Einführung des Frauenstimmrechtes» (στα Γερμανικά). Appenzell, Switzerland: Kanton Appenzell Innerrhoden. Αρχειοθετήθηκε από το πρωτότυπο στις 22 Αυγούστου 2016. Ανακτήθηκε στις 7 Αυγούστου 2016. 
  62. ↑ Bowie, Katherine (n.d.). «Women's Suffrage in Thailand: A Southeast Asian Historiographical Challenge». Comparative Studies in Society and History 52 (4): 708–741. doi:10.1017/S0010417510000435. 
  63. ↑ the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 reflects eligibility for office, not the eligibility to vote.
  64. ↑ Walker, Graham (4 Σεπτεμβρίου 2004). A History of the Ulster Unionist Party: Protest, Pragmatism and Pessimism (Manchester Studies in Modern History). σελ. 162. ISBN 978-0-7190-6109-7. 
  65. ↑ While local government gerrymandering in Northern Ireland was one of the factors which led to the Troubles,[64] parliamentary elections still took place for all British citizens. In 1972 the British Parliament was unwilling to grant the mostly Protestant unionist Northern Ireland government more authoritarian special powers since it was now convinced of its inability to restore order. So they suspended the Parliament of Northern Ireland and the post of Governor and made provision for direct rule by the elected government of the United Kingdom.
  66. ↑ Heater, Derek (2006). «Emergence of Radicalism». Citizenship in Britain: A History. Edinburgh University Press. σελ. 107. ISBN 9780748626724. 
  67. ↑ Heater, Derek (2006). «Emergence of Radicalism». Citizenship in Britain: A History. Edinburgh University Press. σελ. 136. ISBN 9780748626724. 
  68. ↑ «Women's rights». The National Archives. Ανακτήθηκε στις 11 Φεβρουαρίου 2015. 
  69. ↑ «Which Act Gave Women the Right to Vote in Britain?». Synonym. Ανακτήθηκε στις 11 Φεβρουαρίου 2015. 
  70. ↑ «Female Suffrage before 1918», The History of the Parliamentary Franchise, House of Commons Library, 1 March 2013, σελ. 37–39, http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/RP13-14, ανακτήθηκε στις 16 March 2016 
  71. ↑ Until the Reform Act 1832 specified 'male persons', a few women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections through property ownership, although this was rare.[66] In local government elections, women lost the right to vote under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Unmarried women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women.[67][68][69] By 1900, over 1 million women were registered for local government elections in England.[70]
  72. ↑ «From Magna Carta to universal suffrage, the 1000-year history of British democracy». The Telegraph. 18 April 2017. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/0/general-election-2017-magna-carta-universal-suffrage-1000-year/. Ανακτήθηκε στις 19 January 2018. 
  73. ↑ «Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1968». www.legislation.gov.uk. Ανακτήθηκε στις 19 Ιανουαρίου 2018. 
  74. ↑ Graduates of universities lost the right to vote in university constituencies as well as parliamentary boroughs and property owners lost the right to vote both in the constituency where their property lay and that in which they lived, if the two were different. For elections to the Parliament of Northern Ireland, these changes were made under the Electoral Law Act 1968.[73]
  75. ↑ House of Commons Library (6 March 2021) (στα αγγλικά). Who can vote in UK elections?. https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8985/. 
  76. ↑ Ragoonath, Reshma (18 Νοεμβρίου 2020). «Proposed UK Overseas Territories MP bill a no-go». Cayman Compass. 
  77. ↑ «Island Should Be Represented In UK». BERNEWS. BERNEWS. 13 Ιανουαρίου 2012. Ανακτήθηκε στις 2 Ιουνίου 2021. 
  78. ↑ «Having reps in British parliament could help the BVI». BVI News. BVI News, Media Expressions Limited. 25 Νοεμβρίου 2020. Ανακτήθηκε στις 2 Ιουνίου 2021. 
  79. ↑ «Representation of Overseas Territories Bill». Parliament of the United Kingdom (Session 1999–2000 of the House of Commons). Parliament of the United Kingdom. 15 Ιουνίου 2000. Ανακτήθηκε στις 2 Ιουνίου 2021. 
  80. ↑ «Representation of the People (Gibraltar), Volume 643: debated on Tuesday 19 June 2018». HANSARD (House of Commons Chamber). Parliament of the United Kingdom. 
  81. ↑ Most of the British Overseas Territories and all of the Crown Dependencies have a local representative government, although ultimate authority still resides in Westminister. Legislation has been proposed in past to create parliamentary districts for the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies, though as of 2020 no bill has been put forward by the British government[76][77][78][79][80] British nationality law has changed over the years has redefined who has the birthright to live and work in the UK. In 1968 and 1971, as a result of fears about increasing immigration by non-white British citizens, the UK Government introduced immigration restrictions and stripped birthrights on British subjects from some British Overseas Territories. The current principal British nationality law in force, since 1 January 1983, is the British Nationality Act 1981, which established the system of multiple categories of British nationality.
  82. ↑ While constitutionally given the right to vote by the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 and 19th Amendment in 1920, the reality of the country was such that most African Americans and some poor whites could not vote until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Starting in 1888 Southern states legalized disenfranchisement by enacting Jim Crow laws; they amended their constitutions and passed legislation to impose various voting restrictions, including literacy tests, poll taxes, property-ownership requirements, moral character tests, requirements that applicants interpret a particular document, and grandfather clauses that allowed otherwise-ineligible persons to vote if their grandfathers voted (which excluded many African Americans whose grandfathers had been ineligible). During this period, the Supreme Court generally upheld state efforts to discriminate against racial minorities. In Giles v. Harris (1903), the Court held that irrespective of the Fifteenth Amendment, the judiciary did not have the remedial power to force states to register racial minorities to vote. The Indian Citizenship Act in 1924 gave Native Americans the right to vote and officially recognized them as citizens, nearly two-thirds of whom already had citizenship and the right to vote. In 1943 Chinese immigrants were given the right to citizenship and the right to vote by the Magnuson Act. African Americans and others gained full enfranchisement through passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
  83. ↑ 83,0 83,1 Scher, Richard K. (2015). The Politics of Disenfranchisement: Why is it So Hard to Vote in America?. Routledge. σελ. viii–ix. ISBN 9781317455363. 
  84. ↑ 84,0 84,1 Civil Rights in America: Racial Voting Rights. A National Historic Landmarks Theme Study. 2009. https://www.nps.gov/nhl/learn/themes/CivilRights_VotingRights.pdf. 
  85. ↑ The 1828 presidential election was the first in which non-property-holding white males could vote in the vast majority of states, but this was not consistent across the country until the last state, North Carolina, abolished property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in five states in 1860 and survived in two states until the 20th century). The Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 altered the way each state is represented in the House of Representatives. It counted all residents for apportionment including slaves, overriding the three-fifths compromise, and reduced a state's apportionment if it wrongfully denied males over the age of 21 the right to vote; however, this was not enforced in practice. Some poor white men remained excluded at least until 1965.[83][84] For state elections, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
  86. ↑ 19th Amendment in 1920 prohibited any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex, but most African-American women some poor white women remained excluded at least until 1965.[83][84] For state elections, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
  87. ↑ «Voting in Early America». Colonial Williamsburg Spring 2007. http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/spring07/elections.cfm. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 April 2015. 
  88. ↑ «Expansion of Rights and Liberties – The Right of Suffrage». Online Exhibit: The Charters of Freedom. National Archives. Αρχειοθετήθηκε από το πρωτότυπο στις 6 Ιουλίου 2016. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Απριλίου 2015. 
  89. ↑ Janda, Kenneth· Berry, Jeffrey M. (2008). The challenge of democracy : government in America (9. ed., update έκδοση). Houghton Mifflin. σελ. 207. ISBN 9780618990948. ; Murrin, John M.· Johnson, Paul E. (2012). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People (6th έκδοση). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. σελ. 296. ISBN 9780495904991. 
  90. ↑ Stanley L. Engerman, University of Rochester and NBER; Kenneth L. Sokoloff, University of California, Los Angeles and NBER (February 2005). The Evolution of Suffrage Institutions in the New World, σελ. 16, 35. http://economics.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Workshops-Seminars/Economic-History/sokoloff-050406.pdf. «By 1840, only three states retained a property qualification, North Carolina (for some state-wide offices only), Rhode Island, and Virginia. In 1856 North Carolina was the last state to end the practice. Tax-paying qualifications were also gone in all but a few states by the Civil War, but they survived into the 20th century in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island.». 
  91. ↑ «U.S. Voting Rights». Infoplease. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Απριλίου 2015. 
  92. ↑ Schultz, Jeffrey D.· Aoki, Andrew L. (2000). Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: Hispanic Americans and Native Americans (στα Αγγλικά). Greenwood Publishing Group. σελ. 528. ISBN 978-1-57356-149-5. 
  93. ↑ Scher, Richard K. (4 Μαρτίου 2015). The Politics of Disenfranchisement: Why is it So Hard to Vote in America? (στα Αγγλικά). Routledge. σελ. 13. ISBN 978-1-317-45536-3. 
  94. ↑ Madsen, Deborah L., επιμ. (2015). The Routledge Companion to Native American Literature. Routledge. σελ. 168. ISBN 978-1317693192. 
  95. ↑ «One Person, One Vote | The Constitution Project». www.theconstitutionproject.com. Ανακτήθηκε στις 24 Σεπτεμβρίου 2019. 
  96. ↑ Smith, J. Douglas (26 Ιουλίου 2015). «The Case That Could Bring Down 'One Person, One Vote'». The Atlantic (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 24 Σεπτεμβρίου 2019. 
  97. ↑ Goldman, Ari L. (21 November 1986). «One Man, One Vote: Decades of Court Decisions» (στα αγγλικά). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/one-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html. Ανακτήθηκε στις 24 September 2019. 


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