Χρήστης:Lexiseni/πρόχειρο/Early life

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Early life[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

Childhood: 1928–45[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the affluent East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia.[1] His father was the Ukrainian-born William "Zev" Chomsky, who had fled to the United States in 1913 and his mother was the Lithuanian-born Elsie Simonofsky.[2] Both of his parents were Ashkenazi Lithuanian Jews. Having studied at Johns Hopkins University, his father went on to become school principal of the Congregation Mikveh Israel religious school, and in 1924 was appointed to the faculty at Gratz College in Philadelphia. Independently, William researched Medieval Hebrew, and would publish a series of books on the subject. William's wife, Elsie, was born in Belarus. They met at Mikveh Israel, where both taught Hebrew language classes.[3] Described as a "very warm, gentle, and engaging" individual, William placed a great emphasis on educating people so that they would be "well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all", a view subsequently adopted by his son.[4]

"What motivated his [political] interests? A powerful curiosity, exposure to divergent opinions, and an unorthodox education have all been given as answers to this question. He was clearly struck by the obvious contradictions between his own readings and mainstream press reports. The measurement of the distance between the realities presented by these two sources, and the evaluation of why such a gap exists, remained a passion for Chomsky."

Biographer Robert F. Barsky, 1997.[5]

Noam was the Chomsky family's first child. His younger brother, David Eli Chomsky, was born five years later. The brothers remained close, although David was more easy-going while Noam could be very competitive.[6] Chomsky's parents' first language was Yiddish, but Chomsky said it was "taboo" in his family to speak it. Unlike her husband, Elsie spoke "ordinary New York English".[7] The brothers were raised in this Jewish environment, being taught Hebrew and regularly discussing the political theories of Zionism; the family were particularly influenced by the Left Zionist writings of Ahad Ha'am.[6] Being Jewish, Noam Chomsky faced anti-semitism as a child, particularly from the Irish and German communities living in Philadelphia; he recalls German "beer parties" celebrating the fall of Paris to the Nazis.[8][9]

Noam described his parents as "normal Roosevelt Democrats", having a centre-left position on the political spectrum, but he was exposed to far left politics through other members of the family, a number of whom were socialists involved in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union.[10] He was influenced largely by his uncle who owned a newspaper stand in New York City where Jewish leftists came to debate the issues of the day.[9][11] Whenever visiting his relatives in New York City, Chomsky frequented left-wing and anarchist bookstores, voraciously reading political literature.[9][11] He later described his discovery of anarchism as a "lucky accident", allowing him to become critical of other radical left-wing ideologies, namely Marxism-Leninism.[12] Chomsky's primary education was at Oak Lane Country Day School, an independent institution that focused on allowing its pupils to pursue their own interests in a non-competitive atmosphere. It was here that he wrote his first article, aged 10, on the spread of fascism, following the fall of Barcelona in the Spanish Civil War. From the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics.[13][14] Aged 12, he moved on to secondary education at Central High School, where he joined various clubs and societies but was troubled by the hierarchical and regimented method of teaching that they employed.[15]

University: 1945–55[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

Anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker (left) and English democratic socialist George Orwell (right) were both influences on the young Chomsky. Anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker (left) and English democratic socialist George Orwell (right) were both influences on the young Chomsky.
Anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker (left) and English democratic socialist George Orwell (right) were both influences on the young Chomsky.

Aged 16, in 1945 Chomsky embarked on a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania, where his primary interest was in learning Arabic. Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew.[16] Although dissatisfied with the university's strict structure, he was encouraged to continue by the Russian-born linguist Zellig Harris, who convinced Chomsky to major in the subject.[17] Chomsky's BA honor's thesis was titled "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", and revised it for his MA thesis, which he attained at Penn in 1951; it would subsequently be published as a book.[18][19] From 1951 to 1955 he was named to the Society of Fellows at Harvard University while undertaking his doctoral research.[20] Being highly critical of the established behaviourist currents in linguistics, in 1954 he presented his ideas at lectures given at the University of Chicago and Yale University.[21] In 1955 he was awarded his PhD from the University of Pennsylvania for a thesis setting out his ideas on transformational grammar; it would be published in 1975 as The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory.[22]

In 1947, Chomsky entered into a romantic relationship with Carol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since they were toddlers. They were married in 1949,[23] and remained together until her death in 2008.[24] They considered moving to Israel, and in 1953 spent six weeks at the HaZore'a kibbutz; although enjoying himself, Chomsky was appalled by the Jewish nationalism and anti-Arab racism he encountered in the country, and the pro-Stalinist trend that he thought pervaded the kibbutz's leftist community.[25]

On visits to New York City, Chomsky frequented the office of Yiddish anarchist journal Freie Arbeiter Stimme, becoming enamored with the work of contributor Rudolf Rocker, whose work introduced him to the link between anarchism and classical liberalism.[26] Other political thinkers whose work Chomsky read included the anarchist Diego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialists George Orwell, Bertrand Russell, and Dwight Macdonald, and works by Marxists Karl Liebknecht, Karl Korsch, and Rosa Luxemburg.[27] His readings convinced him of the desirability of an anarcho-syndicalist society, and he became fascinated by the anarcho-syndicalist communes set up during the Spanish Civil War documented in Orwell's Homage to Catalonia (1938).[28] He avidly read leftist journal Politics, remarking that it "answered to and developed" his interest in anarchism,[29] as well as the periodical Living Marxism, published by council communist Paul Mattick. Although rejecting its Marxist basis, Chomsky was heavily influenced by council communism, voraciously reading articles in Living Marxism written by Antonie Pannekoek.[30] He was greatly interested in the Marlenite ideas of the Leninist League, an anti-Stalinist Marxist-Leninist group, sharing their views that the Second World War was orchestrated by Western capitalists and the Soviet Union's "state capitalists" to crush Europe's proletariat.[31]

Early career: 1955–1966[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

In 1955, Chomsky obtained a job as an assistant professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), spending half his time on a mechanical translation project and the other half teaching linguistics and philosophy.[32] He later described MIT as "a pretty free and open place, open to experimentation and without rigid requirements. It was just perfect for someone of my idiosyncratic interests and work."[33] In 1957 MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor, while from 1957–58 he was also employed by New York City's Columbia University as a visiting professor.[34] That same year, the Chomskys' first child was born,[35] and he published his first work on linguistics, Syntactic Structures, a book that radically opposed the dominant Harris-Bloomfield trend in the field. The response to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused "significant upheaval" in the discipline.[36] Linguist John Lyons later asserted that it "revolutionized the scientific study of language."[37] From 1958–59 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study.[38]

In 1959 he attracted further attention for his review of B.F. Skinner's 1957 book Verbal Behavior in the journal Language,[39] in which he argued that Skinner ignored the role of human creativity in linguistics.[40] Becoming an "established intellectual",[41] with his colleague Morris Halle, he founded the MIT's Graduate Program in linguistics, and in 1961 he was made professor of foreign language and linguistics, thereby gaining academic tenure.[42] He was appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 at Cambridge, Massachusetts; the event established him as the de facto spokesperson of American linguistics.[43] He continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, as Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1966), Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar (1966), and Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Linguistic Thought (1966).[44] Along with Halle, he also edited the Studies in Language Series of books for Harper and Row.[45] He continued to receive academic recognition and honors for his work, in 1966 visiting a variety of Californian institutions, first as the Linguistics Society of America Professor at the University of California, and then as the Beckman Professor at the University of California, Berkeley.[46] His Beckman lectures would be assembled and published as Language and Mind in 1968.[47]

  1. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xv· Barsky 1997, σελ. 9.
  2. ↑ http://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/jan/20/society.politics
  3. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 9–10.
  4. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 11.
  5. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 30–31.
  6. ↑ 6,0 6,1 Barsky 1997, σελίδες 11–13.
  7. ↑ «The Life and Times of Noam Chomsky, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Amy Goodman». www.chomsky.info. Ανακτήθηκε στις 21 Δεκεμβρίου 2008. 
  8. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 15.
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 9,2 Kreisler 2002.
  10. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 14.
  11. ↑ 11,0 11,1 Barsky 1997, σελ. 23.
  12. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 17–19.
  13. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xv· Barsky 1997, σελίδες 15–17.
  14. ↑ Kreisler 2002, Chapter 1: Background
  15. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xv· Barsky 1997, σελίδες 21–22.
  16. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελ. 47.
  17. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελίδες 48–51.
  18. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελίδες 51–52.
  19. ↑ Zoltán Gendler Szabó (2004). LePore, Ernest, επιμ. Noam Chomsky. Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, 1860-1960. 
  20. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xv· Barksy 1997, σελ. 79.
  21. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 81.
  22. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 83–85.
  23. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελίδες 13, 48, 51–52.
  24. ↑ Marquard, Bryan (20 Δεκεμβρίου 2008). «Carol Chomsky; at 78; Harvard language professor was wife of MIT linguist». Boston Globe. Ανακτήθηκε στις 20 Δεκεμβρίου 2008. [νεκρός σύνδεσμος]
  25. ↑ Barksy 1996, σελ. 82.
  26. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 24.
  27. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 24–25.
  28. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 26.
  29. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 34–35.
  30. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 36–40.
  31. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελίδες 43–44.
  32. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xv· Barksy 1997, σελίδες 86–87.
  33. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελ. 87.
  34. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xvi· Barsky 1997, σελ. 91.
  35. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 91.
  36. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελίδες 88–91.
  37. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. 1.
  38. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xvi· Barsky 1997, σελ. 84.
  39. ↑ Chomsky 1959.
  40. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. 6· Barksy 1997, σελίδες 96–99.
  41. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελ. 119.
  42. ↑ Barksy 1997, σελίδες 101–102, 119.
  43. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 102.
  44. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 103.
  45. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 104.
  46. ↑ Lyons 1978, σελ. xvi· Barsky 1997, σελ. 120.
  47. ↑ Barsky 1997, σελ. 122.
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