Χρήστης:Ιων/αμμοδοχείο

Αικατερίνη της Αραγονίας
	Επίσημο πορτραίτο της Αικατερίνης ως βασίλισσας της Αγγλίας
Βασιλική Σύζυγος της Αγγλίας
Περίοδος	11 Ιουνίου 1509 - 23 Μαΐου 1533
Γέννηση	16 Δεκεμβρίου 1485; Παλάτι του Αρχιεπισκόπου, Αλκαλά ντε Ενάρες, Μαδρίτη, Ισπανία
Θάνατος	7 Ιανουαρίου 1536 (50 ετών); Κάστρο Κίμπολτον, Καίμπριτζσαϊρ, Αγγλία
Σύζυγος	Αρθούρος της Ουαλίας (1501-1502); Ερρίκος Η΄ της Αγγλίας (1509-1533)
Πατέρας	Φερδινάνδος Β΄ της Αραγονίας
Μητέρα	Ισαβέλλα Α΄ της Καστίλης
Θρησκεία	Ρωμαιοκαθολική
Υπογραφή
	δεδομένα (π • σ • ε )

file:catherinearagonmariadoylekennedy.jpg Η Αικατερίνη της Αραγονίας ήταν το νεότερο επιζών παιδί του Φερδινάνδου Β' και της Ισαβέλλας Α', των Καθολικών Μοναρχών, από κοινού ηγεμόνων της Ισπανίας, and as was common for princesses of the day, her parents almost immediately began looking for a political match for her. When she was three year old, she was betrothed to Arthur, the son of Henry VII of England. Arthur was not even quite two at the time.

When she was almost 16, in 1501, Catherine made the journey to England. It took her three months, and her ships weathered several storms, but she safely made landfall at Plymouth on October 2, 1501. Catherine and Arthur were married on 14 November 1501 in Old St. Paul's Cathedral, London. Catherine was escorted by the groom's younger brother, Henry.

After the wedding and celebrations, the young couple moved to Ludlow Castle on the Welsh border. Less than six months later, Arthur was dead, possibly of the 'sweating sickness'. Although this marriage was short, it was very important in the history of England, as will be apparent.

Catherine was now a widow, and still young enough to be married again. Henry VII still had a son, this one much more robust and healthy than his dead older brother. The English king was interested in keeping Catherine's dowry, so 14 months after her husband's death she was betrothed to the future Henry VIII, who was too young to marry at the time.^[1]

To ακόλουθο γράμμα γράφτηκε από την Αικατερίνη όταν ήταν Χήρα Πριγκίπισσα της Ουαλίας. Η αικατερίνη έγραφε στα Αγγλικά μονο μετά το γάμ οτης με τον Βασιλιά Ερρίκο Η'. Η μητέρα της, the famous Queen Isabella of Castile, had died in the previous year; her father was beset by diplomatic troubles, particularly with the English (αδηυνατούσε να επιβάλλει στη Καστίλη την αποδοχή ενός εμπριικού συμφωνίας με την Αγγλία, κάτι που οδήγησε σε απώλεια χρημάτων για τον τσγκούνη βασιλιά Ερρίκος Ζ'

Το 1502 είχε παεθάνει, ο σύζυγος της Αικτερίνας και διάδοχος του Ερρίκου Ζ', πρίγκιπας Αρθούρος, . Η Αικατερίνη βρέθηκε σε αδύναμη θέση, και πέρασε επτά χρόνια δυστυχισμένης χηρείας στην Αγγλία προτού την παντρευτεί ο αδελφός του Αρθούρου, Ερρίκος. Ο πατέρας της δεν μπόρεσε ποτέ να αποπληρώσει όλο το ποσό της προίκας της προς τον Πρίγκιπα Αρθούρο. Αυτό το θέμα έγινε ακόμα πιο πιεστικό όταν εκείνη αρραβωνιάστηκε με τον Πρίγκιπα Ερρίκο. Ο Φερδινάνδος και ο Ερρίκος Ζ' ήταν ισοδύναμα καχύποπτοι και πονηροί μονάρχες, αμφότεροι απρόθυμοι να συμβιβαστούν ώστε να κάνουν τη ζωή της Αικατερίνης στην Αγγλία αξιοπρεπή.

Ο γάμος με τον Πρίγκιπα Ερρίκο, αν και είσημα αναγνωρ΄σιτηεκ το 1504, wδεν επρόκειτο να εορταστεί παρά μόνο δύο χρόνιαμετά όταν ο πρίγκιπας ωρίαμσε σε ηλίκιά.. Ο Ισπανος πρεσνβευτής Dr De Puebla είχε διαπραγματευτεί το συμβόλαιο, και συμπέραινε ότι ο Ερρίκος Ζ' θα υποστήριζε και θα συντηρούσε με χαρά για αυτα τα δύο χρόνια την Αικατερίνη. But Henry gave her barely enough money for food; she had no money to pay servants' wages or buy clothing, among other things. She lived in extreme poverty and with a frightening lack of attention or respect. Henry VII made it clear that if her dowry was not paid, he would renege on the marriage to Prince Henry. And Ferdinand made it clear that he lacked the funds to pay the dowry; indeed, it was not even a priority in his tumultuous life.

In this letter, Katharine mentions an 'Infanta Isabel'; this was her older sister Isabella. She also unfairly maligns the amiable Dr De Puebla. Katharine's duenna Dona Elvira despised De Puebla for political reasons and poisoned the young woman's mind against him.

Ένα γράμμα της του Δεκεμβριου 1505 προς τον Φερδινάνδο με ευγενικά διατυπωμένα παράπονα είναι συναρπαστικό και προσφέρει μια ανεκτίμητη ματιά στη ζ ωή τηε Αικατερίης ως πριγκίπισσας της Ουαλίας, ηοποία ζούσε φτωχή, πεινασμένη και απεπλπισμ΄να άρρωσστη· 'I shall soon die,' she wrote to her father in despair. She survived, of course, but these conditions explain why she considered her marriage to King Henry VIII to be so miraculous. This letter also offers a funny glimpse into Henry VII's miserly nature.

Η Αικατερίνη αλληλογραφούσε με την οικογένεια της την περίοδο που παρέμενε στην Αγγλία και δεν είχε σχεδόν καθόλου πόρους, ούτε για τη συντήρηση της προσωπικής της αυλής. Στην αλληλογραφία της παραπονιόταν ευγενικά προς τον πατέρα της για τις δραστηριότητες του γιατρού ντε Πουέμπλα και ανέφερε έντονα βιοποριστικά προβλήματα. Της είχε διατεθεί ένα ποσό για διατροφή το οποίο δεν αρκούσε για να καλύψει τα χρέη της στο Λονδίνο. Δεν μπορούσε να καλύψει ούτε την ανάγκη για ρουχισμό των υπηρετών της. Όταν μια κυρία της συντροφιάς της αναγκάστηκε φύγει στη Φλάνδρα για θεραπεία των ματιών, η Αικατερίνη ζήτησε από τον βασιλιά να της σταλεί μά άλλη κυρία ή να μεταφερθεί η Αικατερίνη στην αυλή του. Για το ζήτημα ζήτησε τη μεσολάβηση του γιατρού ελπίζοντας να την βοηθήσει παρά την προηγούμενη συμπεριφορά του. όμω η διαπραγμάτευση που πέτυχε ήταν να μεταφερθώ στην αυλή του βασιλιά , όπου πράγματι περνούσε η αικατερινη ευχάριστα, αλά ταυτόχρονα να διαλυθεί η προσωπική της αυλή και να η προσωπική μου επίσημη άμαξα να να τοποθετηθεί σε ένα οίκημα δκό του, ούτως ώστε να μην είμαι πια κυράι της. ζητούσε από τον πατέρα της να στείλει έναν άλλο που θα τον υηρετούσε πραγματικά τον πατέρα της πιστά και τον παρότρυνε να στείλε κάποιον για να εξακριβώσει την αλήθεια των λόγων σε περίπτωση που την θεωρούσε υπερβολική. Η ίδια είχε καταρρακωθεί σε μεγάλο βαθμό, και υπέφερε επί εβδομάδε από τριταίο πυρετό πιστεύοντας μάλιστα΄οτι θα πεθάνει. Επέμενεπολύ να απομακρυνθεί ο γιατρός, θεωρώντας ότι προσπαθο΄σε να επιτύχει το χαμηλότερο συμφέρον για τον πατέρα της. Ανέφερε ακόμη ότι τα πολύτιμα αντικε΄μενα που έφερε μαζί της υποεκτιμήθηκαν από τον βασιλιά επεδή είχε πολλά κοσμήματα και προτιμούσε χρήματα παρά κοσμήματα. Ζητούσε λοιπ΄πον από τον πατέρα της να πάρει πίω τα κοσμήματα και να δώσει τα αντίστοιχα χρήματα στον βασιλιά Ερρίκο΄.

The warning signs were there. The teenage girl due to become England’s queen consort was not eating properly. Behind her back, worried letters were sent from one side of Europe to the other. In a sharp echo of the words used to describe anorexia, bulimia and today’s food-orientated illnesses, Catherine of Aragon was given to ‘disorderly eating’ – or so one close observer would go on to write in the early days of her marriage to Henry VIII. The 15-year-old Spanish princess had arrived in England in 1501, after a long , storm-tossed journey from the magnificent surroundings of her home at the Alhambra Palace in Granada. Catherine had always known her destiny was to marry the future king of England and bear a son to continue the Tudor dynasty. Her first years in England, however, were miserable: a time of loneliness, uncertainty and almost continuous illness. Her eating problems did not help. But could they have had a knock-on effect, making it difficult for her to produce the desired male heir and thereby pushing her husband into the arms of Anne Boleyn and changing the course of English history? We think of eating disorders as a uniquely modern phenomenon. Blame is pinned on everything from skeletal catwalk models, fashion magazines and bikinis to exams and career stress. But self-starvation and binge eating have been with us for centuries – at least since the Romans began vomiting after meals, or it first occurred to someone that fasting was virtuous. It is quite possible that Princess Diana was not the first famous royal to suffer. Anorexia wasn’t formally diagnosed as an illness until the end of the 19th century, but candidates for early anorexics are now thought to range from Joan of Arc to Mary Queen of Scots. ‘Did this exist before? Absolutely. It just wasn’t called anorexia nervosa,’ says Dr Julie Hepworth, a specialist in eating disorders. ‘The symptoms have been called different things at different times.’ It is impossible to make a medical diagnosis five centuries later, but Dr Hepworth agrees that Catherine’s situation as a powerless, unhappy young woman and the symptoms I describe her experiencing in my biography Catherine of Aragon: Henry’s Spanish Queen are reminiscent of the lives of modern sufferers. ‘There are striking features which are very similar,’ she says.

Catherine’s troubles started soon after her arrival in England. She had not originally come with the intention of marrying Prince Henry, but had been engaged since the age of four to his elder brother Arthur, heir to Henry VII. A wedding ceremony at St Paul’s sealed the match between the two 15-year-olds, and a wedding bed awaited Catherine and Arthur in the neighbouring Bishop’s Palace. It was there they were meant to set about the business of producing a future heir to the English crown. But her marriage to Arthur seems to have been as unhappy as it was short. Historians have argued endlessly about whether the two ever managed to have sex. Catherine insisted they did not, and her retainers told of an embarrassed Arthur shuffling out of her chambers, leaving a sad and dissatisfied Catherine behind. ‘I fear he will never be able to have relations with me,’ she said, according to one retainer. That must have been a blow to her self-esteem, especially as her main task was to provide heirs. Her sense of failure and worthlessness would have been acute. After weeks of partying the young couple were sent to live inside the towering grey walls of Ludlow Castle, close to the Welsh border in Shropshire. But Arthur died within months, and Catherine found herself a widow at 16, ill and, presumably, anxious to leave what her mother called ‘that unhealthy place’. Her kindly mother-in-law, Elizabeth of York, eventually sent a black-fringed carriage to take her back to London, but Henry VII and her parents, the mighty Spanish monarchs Isabel and Ferdinand, soon had fresh plans for her. In 1503 she was engaged to marry Arthur’s young brother Henry. Her new fiancé was, however, still an 11-year-old child. She must wait to marry him. In the meantime her parents abandoned her to the care of the tight-fisted Henry VII, but repeatedly failed to send the final instalment of dowry money that would allow her to remarry. Seven glum years were spent in misery-provoking limbo. ‘I fear my life will be short, owing to my troubles,’ she told her father. Henry VII was sometimes cruel, hoping that might force her family to send the money. Catherine was a pawn in European politics – trapped and powerless. She complained bitterly, especially about money: at one stage she was forced to sell her bracelets in order to buy herself a new dress. We think of eating disorders as a uniquely modern phenomenon, but they have been with us for centuries Grief then added to Catherine’s woes. On 26 November 1504 Queen Isabel died. Catherine lost not just a mother, but her marriage-market status as daughter to the queen of Castile – a title that passed to her elder sister, Juana ‘the Mad’. If Catherine was already powerless, her mother’s death can only have made her feel increasingly worthless. At some stage Catherine began eating erratically. Fasting on religious grounds offered her an opportunity to shun food. Today’s eating disorders are often associated with exaggerated perfectionism, and religion provided Catherine with examples of ways to pursue that. Some of the more extreme practices could involve self-harm – ranging from self-flagellation to starvation. Famous medieval saints such as Catherine of Siena had even starved themselves to death. ‘She was constrained every day to vomit the food she had eaten,’ the saint’s confessor had reported. Comparisons with today’s self-starving anorexics chasing a perfect body are apt. The saints replaced ‘the ideal of thinness with holiness’, says historian Rudolph Bell, author of a book on female saints whom he called ‘holy anorexics’. Among those who spotted the danger to Catherine’s health was the Pope. Julius II, whose permission was required for many marriages between Europe’s royal families, was a key player in continental politics. So when he received news that Catherine was overdoing her fasting and jeopardising her ability to bear children, he wrote to the Prince of Wales. The Pope’s letter is dated confusingly and it is not clear whether it was meant for Prince Arthur or Prince Henry, but Catherine was probably aged between 15 and 19 – the age at which today’s eating disorders appear. Julius leaves little doubt about the worry she caused. He had been told that the ‘fervour of her devotion’ was such that she excessively observed ‘holy oaths and prayers, fasting and abstinence’ without the Prince of Wales’s permission. Catherine ‘does not have the full power of her own body’, the Pope wrote. ‘And the devotions and fasting…if they are thought to stand in the way of her physical health and the procreation of children…can be revoked and annulled by men.’ He gave the prince ‘authority to restrain and compel’ her and prevent anything ‘that would stand in the way of the procreation of children’. Catherine, in other words, could be ordered to eat. Prince Arthur

Henry VII

From left: Prince Arthur, the original heir and Catherine’s first husband, in 1499, and his father Henry VII in 1505 Catherine was plagued by mysterious, long-lasting illnesses. Her own doctor believed she suffered one continuous bout of illness that lasted for six years after her arrival in England. The symptoms were varied and erratic. They included ‘derangement of the stomach’, hot sweats, cold sweats, fevers that came every other day, summer colds and summer coughs that baffled King Henry’s physicians. She would complain, on the same day, of ‘suffering cold and heat’. It is difficult not to see her underlying illness as depression. Her doctor said as much. ‘The only pains of which she now suffers are moral afflictions beyond the knowledge and ability of her physician.’ The cures were various. Mostly they involved blood-letting and purgatives that would have provoked both vomiting and diarrhoea. Catherine preferred blood-letting. The cures at least guaranteed her a little bit of attention, if only from her physician. Spaniards at court speculated that an early bout of illness was caused by the fact that ‘she was a virgin, and that if she married someone who had skills with women, she would get better’. What she needed, they meant, was a ‘real’ man in her bed. Her own physician proposed something more sensible – a little bit of love. Some ‘paternal solicitude’ from her uncaring father, he insisted, was ‘her only hope’. Catherine’s troubles were brought to a sudden end by Henry VII’s death in 1509. The 17-year-old Henry VIII was proclaimed king, and one of his first decisions was to marry Catherine, now aged 23. The final dowry payment was made quickly, and the young couple were apparently happy, but overanxious to produce children. Catherine’s strange eating habits soon drew the attention of a worried Spanish ambassador. ‘Irregularity in her eating makes her unwell,’ he reported. ‘Which is why she does not menstruate well.’ Little surprise, he went on to say, that Catherine was having trouble conceiving. A disturbed menstrual cycle is one of the first symptoms to appear in modern eating disorders, and problems getting pregnant can be another knock-on effect. In fact Catherine did conceive – at least half a dozen times – but her pregnancies mostly ended badly. Stillbirths, miscarriages and infant deaths were a painfully repetitive part of her existence. This was not abnormal for the times, but research also suggests that both miscarriages and underweight babies can be linked to eating disorders. Only one of Catherine’s children survived into adulthood – Mary Tudor, the future queen who would go down in history as Bloody Mary. Crucially, Catherine provided no male heir – and a daughter was not enough for Henry VIII. It was the desire for a son, as much as the spell cast by the bewitching Anne Boleyn, that drove Henry to leave Catherine. This only happened after 17 years of outwardly successful, amicable marriage (Catherine eventually lasted twice as long as Henry’s queen as the five wives who followed her put together). A long and messy divorce battle, which Catherine fought tenaciously despite the obvious dangers to her life, ended only when Henry decided to split the English church from the Pope and Rome. He could then appoint an archbishop of Canterbury who would do his will and grant a divorce, a decision that reverberated through English history for generations. So was it an eating disorder that robbed Catherine of her ability to give Henry the male heir he craved? At this distance, and with the evidence available, it’s impossible to be sure. We can’t know if she had some other medical condition that might explain her symptoms, and we know little about her weight. Later portraits and descriptions certainly show her as plump enough. But anorexics and bulimics, as their families know only too well, often spread their suffering beyond themselves. ^[2]

li[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

{{Infobox election | election_name = United States Senate election in Louisiana, 2008 | country = Louisiana | type = presidential | ongoing = no | previous_election = United States Senate election in Louisiana, 2002 | previous_year = 2002 | next_election = United States Senate election in Louisiana, 2014 | next_year = 2014 | election_date = November 4, 2008 | image1 = [[File:Mary Landrieu Senate portrait.jpg|125px]] | nominee1 = [[Mary Landrieu]] | party1 = Democratic Party (United States) | popular_vote1 = 988,298 | percentage1 = 52.1% | image2 = | nominee2 = [[John Neely Kennedy]] | party2 = Republican Party (United States) | popular_vote2 = 867,177 | percentage2 = 45.7% | map_image = LASen08Counties.png | map_size = 200px | map_caption = Parish results | title = U.S. Senator | before_election = [[Mary Landrieu]] | before_party = Democratic Party (United States) | after_election = [[Mary Landrieu]] | after_party = Democratic Party (United States) }} {{ElectionsLA}} The 2008 United States Senate election in Louisiana was held on November 4, 2008. This was the first time since the 1970s that Louisiana used primaries for federal races. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Mary Landrieu won re-election to a third term.

Background[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

Landrieu's increased vulnerability was supposed to be the result of a significant drop in the state's African-American population after Hurricane Katrina, especially in Landrieu's hometown of New Orleans. Louisiana also elected a Republican senator in 2004 and President Bush carried the state twice, in 2004 with 58 percent of the vote. Also, Republican Congressman Bobby Jindal won the 2007 gubernatorial election with 54 percent of the vote.

Major candidates[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

Democratic[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

Mary Landrieu, incumbent U.S. Senator (1997-)

Republican[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

John Neely Kennedy, State Treasurer (2000-)

Predictions[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

CQ Politics rated this race as 'Leans Democrat'.^[1] The Cook Political Report considered it 'Lean Democrat'.^[2] The Rothenberg Political Report considered it a 'Narrow Advantage for Incumbent Party'.^[3] Landrieu was considered the most vulnerable Democratic senator up for re-election in 2008.^[4]

Polling[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

Poll Source	Dates administered	Landrieu (D)	Kennedy (R)
Rasmussen Reports	October 21, 2008	53%	43%
Rasmussen Reports	September 25, 2008	54%	41%
Rasmussen Reports	August 17, 2008	56%	39%
Rasmussen Reports	July 9, 2008	49%	44%
Southern Media & Opinion Research	July 1, 2008	46%	40%
Rasmussen Reports	May 28, 2008	47%	44%
Southern Media & Opinion Research	March 26 - April 9, 2008	50%	38%
Survey USA	December 6–10, 2007	46%	42%

Results[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα]

{{{τίτλος}}}
Κόμμα		Υποψήφιος	Ψήφοι	%	±%
	[[{{{κόμμα}}}\|{{Πρότυπο:{{{κόμμα}}}/meta/shortname}}]]	{{{υποψήφιος}}}	{{{ψήφοι}}}	{{{ποσοστό}}}	{{{μεταβολή}}}
	[[{{{κόμμα}}}\|{{Πρότυπο:{{{κόμμα}}}/meta/shortname}}]]	{{{υποψήφιος}}}	{{{ψήφοι}}}	{{{ποσοστό}}}	{{{μεταβολή}}}
	[[{{{κόμμα}}}\|{{Πρότυπο:{{{κόμμα}}}/meta/shortname}}]]	{{{υποψήφιος}}}	{{{ψήφοι}}}	{{{ποσοστό}}}	{{{μεταβολή}}}
	[[{{{κόμμα}}}\|{{Πρότυπο:{{{κόμμα}}}/meta/shortname}}]]	{{{υποψήφιος}}}	{{{ψήφοι}}}	{{{ποσοστό}}}	{{{μεταβολή}}}
	[[{{{κόμμα}}}\|{{Πρότυπο:{{{κόμμα}}}/meta/shortname}}]]	{{{υποψήφιος}}}	{{{ψήφοι}}}	{{{ποσοστό}}}	{{{μεταβολή}}}
Πλειοψηφία			{{{ψήφοι}}}	{{{ποσοστό}}}	{{{μεταβολή}}}
Προσέλευση			{{{ψήφοι}}}	{{{ποσοστό}}}	{{{μεταβολή}}}
	[[{{{νικητής}}}\|{{Πρότυπο:{{{νικητής}}}/meta/shortname}}]] αμετάβλητο		Μεταβολή	{{{μεταβολή}}}